Fleshy Structures Associated with Ovule Protection and Seed Dispersal in Gymnosperms: A Systematic and Evolutionary Overview

Fleshy structures associated with the ovule/seed arose independently several times during gymnosperm evolution. are linked to protection and dispersal, present in all four lineages of extant gymnosperms. The ontogenetic origin fleshy could be different, spans from ovule funiculus Taxus baccata aril, integument Ginkgo biloba, modified bracts as case Ephedra species. This variability ontogeny is reflected morphology characteristics that these tissues display among different review aims provide a complete overview ovule/seed-associated living gymnosperms, reporting detailed descriptions for every genus. evolution evolved still unclear, hypotheses have been presented—protection seeds, desiccation—each plausible but no one able account their independent origins. Our purpose offer an extensive discussion on structures, under points view (morphology, evolution, gene involvement), stimulate further studies both ecological molecular levels.